Transcribed for this site by Lyn Magill-Hoch and Sherrie Rice Smith. We are grateful for their assistance. Please note: This book has been divided into three parts for presentation at the Clarion County Genealogy & History Web site.

A History of the Presbytery of Clarion of the Presbyterian Church of the United States of America

Prepared Under the Direction of the Committee on History by Rev. J. Wallace Fraser, D.D., Pastor of the Presbyterian Church, New Bethlehem, Pa.

To the Reverend James S. Elder, D.D., Reverend Hugh F. Earseman, D.D., and the Reverend John H. Cooper, D.D., through whose untiring efforts and copious historical notes of the early days of Clarion Presbytery this work has been made possible. This book is respectfully dedicated by their fellow servant. -- The Author.

Part One -- The Narrative

The Centennial History of Clarion Presbytery

Chapter 1: "Our Heritage"

Presbyterianism is both a heritage and a challenge. As we attempt to gather the facts of unusual interest for the past century, that have occurred in the life of Clarion Presbytery, we are convinced that we have a noble heritage in the "Faith of our Fathers." And it ought to be a challenge to the best that is within us; but it may be that we do not all understand how great is this heritage. And if we do not understand we can not fully appreciate the value of the past events. So the purpose of this record is to help us see something of the origin, the nature and the history of the religious life that has occurred in the area now commonly known as Clarion Presbytery.

Our Name

The name we bear has a most ancient origin, being derived from the Greek word meaning "Elder," and describes a form of government used by certain religious bodies, rather than the doctrinal belief that is held by these bodies. We find the word "Elder" as a religious ruler existing as early as the Exodus or about B.C. 1500. That our church holds an ancient and honorable form of government can not be denied; but we would not boast about this very ancient custom of being ruled by the Elders of the community, lest we fall into grievous errors, rather we would rejoice in the fact that many honorable names are to be found in the organizations that have held this form of government. And in this record of past deeds we read our present day challenge, "To bend every effort that is humanly possible to advance the Kingdom of God by this system in our generation."

Our Inheritance

We are reminded by Dr. Wm. T. Hanzsche in his little book entitled "The Presbyterians" that "The Presbyterians inherit with all other Christians a noble history. The most beautiful and fascinating story in all annals of man is the story of the growth of the Christian Church in the first century of the Christian era." [Wm. T. Hansche The Presbyterians (Westminster Press) page 9]. And Dr. Long reminds us that "Our Church had her beginning in the heart of God. The Holy Scriptures gives us the thrilling story of God working His purpose out through the selection of a race, and then of individuals; of the rise and fall of the Kingdom of Israel; and the preservation of the remnant in New Testament times is found worshipping in the Jewish Synagogue. In the fullness of time Jesus came to fulfill the law and the prophets. He used the synagogue which He found, and on it grafted His church. From the foundation of the world He was, and is, the Head of the church if we consider the Church only as an organization. He came preaching the Kingdom of God. That Kingdom is always greater than the Church, but never less than the church [Roswell C. Long The Story of Our Church (Presby. Com. of Publication) page 16].

Our System

Presbyterianism is then a system of government, where the Church is controlled by representatives or elders chosen by the people themselves, and this system we think is found imbedded in the Scriptures themselves. It was not improvised by the ingenuity of men, but underlies all Bible instruction, a system used by the patriarchs and prophets of the Old Testament, a system likewise recognized by the Apostles and evangelists of the New, and a system that reappears again and again in both civil and religious affairs. So Presbyterianism is unquestionably an ancient and honorable form of religious government.

Referring to our Bible we find that the Elders were assembled by Moses before they left the land of Egypt (Ex. 4:29). And they are mentioned again in his farewell address (Deut. 31:33). In the days of Joshua we find the Elders were always the representatives of the people, and it was the Elders who came to Samuel to demand a king. The Elders came to David to request him to take over the government of the whole nation (II Sam. 5:3). And when Solomon dedicated the Temple he assembled the Elders at Jerusalem (I Kgs. 8:1).

Even during those distressing days of the captivity when the Children of Israel were living in a strange land, surrounded by a strange and idolatrous practices; when they found it to be impossible to attend services in the Temple, they instituted the Synagogue services, and the Elders were the chief officers. It was simply a continuation of the plan to which they had been accustomed. And when they returned to the homeland under Ezra and Nehemiah they continued this idea of the Synagogue services in Palestine.

In the New Testament we can not help being impressed with the prominence of the Elder in the government of the Church, although we do notice that sometimes they are spoken of as Bishops. But on good authority these two words would seem to be interchangeable, "Presbyter" and "Episcopos" both describing the representatives of congregation. The Elders were present in the first great Church Council in Jerusalem in 50 A.D. Likewise there were Elders present when the Apostle Paul made his report concerning his missionary journeys. And in the letters of the Apostle we find special instructions given to the Elders of the early churches.

Idea Of Church Developed

During the days of the captivity the word Synagogue was used to denote the assembly of the people for worship. Which is simply a Greek word denoting "Assembly" or "Congregation". These meetings seem to have been simply for the purpose of maintaining the religious life that already existed. But when the Spirit of Christianity was diffused in the first century, it was not with the idea of maintaining the religious life that already existed, but rather to extend this spirit into wider areas, even unto the ends of the earth. This desire being simply an effort to obey the great command "Go ye therefore and make disciples of all nations." And so energetic were these followers of Christ in gathering the people for prayer, praise and exhortation, that their assemblies became known as the "Ekklesia" or "The called out." Thus the worship of the Synagogue soon became known as purely a Jewish service, while the worship of Ekklesia was the Christian service. And from this word we have derived our term "Ecclesiastical" or things that pertain to the Christian church.

Unity

It was about B. C. 400 when the Old Testament took the form of the Synagogues, but these new organizations were always recognized as Jewish places of worship, so as a matter of fact it was the same "Church" continued under new dispensation. We find the Apostle Paul emphasizing this unity of the church several times. In the Epistle to the Galatians he tells us that since we are Christ's therefore we are Abraha's seed and heirs. In Romans he compares the Church to an Olive tree, whose roots were planted many centuries ago in the days of the prophets and patriarchs. This tree has been growing for many centuries and now the Gentile Christians are grafted onto the ancient trunk. And in the Epistle to the Ephesians he compares the church to a beautiful building, where the foundations were laid long ago by the same patriarchs and prophets, and the Apostles builded thereon, and that Jesus Christ is the chief cornerstone of this building -- the church.

Dr. Walter Lingle, in his book Presbyterians, Their History and Their Beliefs says: "This oneness of the Old Testament church and the New Testament Church is a very important part of our Presbyerian conception of the church. You know the children of believers were included in the Old Testament covenant and were members of the Old Testament church. This being true, the children of believers are still included in the covenant and are members of the New Testament church, and have a right to baptism, if the Old Testament church and the New Testament are one and the same" (Pg. 11-12) [Walter L. Lingle Presbyterians, Their History and Beliefs (Presby. Com. of Pub.) page 11].

Organization

Now Presbyterians generally take considerable pride in those facts that they hold a very ancient and honorable form of government. But in time we find this simple plan of church government became more complicated, when emphasis was placed upon certain church centers, and the idea of a Bishop became one who was given authority of a certain district, while the Elder or Presbyter had authority only over a particular church. This idea continued to grow until the "Papacy" was well established as the accepted form of Church government. It was not until the sixteenth century that the unrest of certain individuals, who believed this plan of church government was a departure from the New Testament plan, were able to break away from the control of the Bishop of Rome.

It was when the age of the Apostles was past, between the third and fourth centuries that the idea of the office of Ruling Elder came to be regarded as solely a ministerial office. This idea was allowed to grow until the people were denied any share in the labor of the Church. And as a result of this movement in the course of time a hierarchy was established, composed entirely of ministers who assumed the absolute control of the church.

But to many careful readers of history this movement seemed to be a departure from the New Testament teaching, as well as a departure from the historic form that existed among the people of God at a much earlier date. So the student of history is not surprised to find a feeling of resentment, against this new form of church government, growing with the church itself.

Reformation

So in the sixteenth century this feeling of unrest and resentment burst forth in a "Flame of Rebellion" -- which was simply a protest against the existing forms of Church organization, and a desire to return to the Apostolic teachings. But we must remember that such movements do not simply happen. They may suddenly appear to come to a head but they are not accidental. Back of them there is a long series of forces quietly working till they find that public expression. And this is true with the Protestant reformation.

This movement secured the restoration of the office of Ruling Elder in the Christian church. And this work of restoration was preeminently the labor of John Calvin. Although a host of very honorable names appear during the Reformation, such as Wycliffe, Hus, Savonrola, Oecolampadeous, Luther, Zwingli and many others. All of whom have their place in the work of reformation. Yet the work of restoring the idea of Church Government by the Elder, who was elected as the representative of the people that are governed, was especially the work of Calvin. Although John Calvin was a Frenchman by birth, and labored in many fields, yet he did his greatest work in Switzerland, and especially in Geneva. So Geneva became the strongest example of this system of church government, anywhere in the world. And later it was copied by the churches of France, England and Scotland, and the system became known as the "Presbyterian System of Church Government."

Our Birth

But more particularly the Presbyterian church had its birth in the year 1643 when religious discussions in England came to a head, and Parliament called an assembly of ministers and laymen to meet in Westminster Abbey, London. This assembly was made up of one hundred and twenty-one clergymen, ten lords, twenty commoners from various parts of England, and seven commissioners from Scotland. Now Scotland had already adopted the Reformed faith and for over a century had been happily living under the Presbyterian system of church government. Before this assembly was called to meet in Westminster, they had formed their opinions on most of the questions to be discussed. But the meeting in Westminster was a notable gathering of men who were conspicuous for their learning and eloquence. They were the thinkers, the statesmen, the leaders of the community, as well as clergymen and hymnists.

During their deliberations very definite definitions were used. "Presbyterian" being that form of church government that was ruled by their own chosen representatives, and "Episcopal" being the government under a Bishop who had authority over a particular district, or diocese. This assembly was composed of Episcopalians, [unreadable], Independents, and Presbyterians from England and Scotland. As they proceeded with their task, they were divided into three committees, and there were Scotch Presbyterians on each of these committees. But Parliament kept a strict insight of all their deliberations, insisting that "No question shall be debated and voted upon the same day," and that "All statements shall be backed by Biblical proof." With such rules as these the findings of the assembly were generally accepted to all concerned. And the Presbyterians adopted what became known as the "Westminster Standards."

On to America

For many years after the Reformation we find that the Protestant (those who protested against the existing evils in the church) were severely persecuted by the opposing faction of the church. Soon the discovery of America proved to be not only one of the most wonderful events in human history, but also came with deep significance in religious circles, as it gave ample opportunity for these persecuted Protestants of Europe to flee from their native soil and escape the hand of oppression.

Thus very soon we find the English Pilgrims settling in Plymouth in 1620, the Calvinistic Puritans in Boston in 1628, the Dutch from Holland, who were also Calvinists, settling in New York in 1623; the French Huguenots in Virginia and in North Carolina in 1685. The Scotch and Irish Presbyterians began coming to American at a very early date and settled in the Carolinas and in New Jersey. As the religious persecutions in Europe became more intolerable these numbers increased, and from 1705 to 1775 there was a steady stream of Presbyterians flowing to America. A conservative historian has estimated that within seventy years, there were no less than five hundred thousand immigrants that came to American by the way of North Ireland. And a great majority of these settlers came to New Jersey and to Pennsylvania, then gradually moved westward, and many of them settled in and around Pittsburgh, until that city soon became known as the "Most Presbyterian City in American."

Old Redstone

To meet the needs of the growing West we find the Presbytery of Redstone, was erected September 19, 1781, which was the pioneer organization for all the work of the Presbyterian Church west of the Allegheny Mountains. One of the interesting facts to be remembered in connection with this organization is that it was not described by territorial limits, that is, it was established by the joint action of the Synod of "New York and Philadelphia" in the spring of that same year, to meet the needs of the growing country, and was only described by the churches and the ministers which it originally included. So literally this Presbytery of Old Redstone reached from the summit of the Allegheny Mountains to the setting sun, or at least to the furthest Western border of civilization.

Refining Fires

Someone has said that these pioneers who came to American had been refined in the fires of Religious Persecution in Europe; that they were a "Sifted people from the Old World." But if there were "Sifted" before they came to these shores how much greater was that sifting after their arrival in the New World. It is sad to read those early records and find that out of 900 who settled in Virginia in 1607, only 150 remained in June 1610. And likewise in Massachusetts, out of the 100 Pilgrims who came in the Mayflower, more than half were dead, when that boat returned four months later. But these settlers sought God and not gold, and they conquered the terrors of the wilderness.

Faith of Our Fathers

As these settlers pushed westward they knew that their workers were few, their resources were limited and the hardships were severe, yet they bravely pushed forward with resolute purpose to find Religious freedom and civil liberty. Till different nationalities, different social customs, and different intellectual standards were blended together in a united people. And it is with peculiar interest that we find the Church taking a leading part in this development, "till the History of the Nation is the History of the Church." So the foundations of the new World were laid on Religion, Education and Obedience. And it is because of the Faith, the Vision and the Sacrifice of those who have gone before us that we now dwell together in happiness, and in peace and in security.

Chapter 2: Growth

The Changes Which Lead to the Erection of Clarion Presbytery

American Presbyterianism is approximately three hundred years old. This work may for convenience be divided into three groups, corresponding to the three centuries. Thus the work of the first century may be known as the Colonial Period, during which time the work was largely confined to the colonies along the sea coast. The work of the second century might be called the Period of Extension, when the work was carried beyond the Allegheny Mountains and as far west as the Mississippi River. And the work of the third century might be called the National Period, when the work was carried through to the Pacific Ocean.

First Organizations -- 1683

Although there were Presbyterians among the early settlers in the Colonies, we find that organized Presbyterianism really began with the coming of Rev. Francis Mackemie in 1683. Mr. Mackemie was licensed by the Presbytery of Laggan in Ireland and sent as an Evangelist to the "Distant Colonies." He began his work on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, and soon succeeded in organizing two churches know as Snow Hill and Rehoboth in the year 1683. But we read that he continued to labor as an itinerate missionary along the coast, and journeyed from place to place from New York to the Carolinas, so at the time of his death some twenty-seven years later, there were twenty churches scattered along the seacoast which were directly the result of this missionary labor.

First Presbytery -- 1706

By March 1706 there was sufficient interest aroused that the First Presbytery was organized in or near Philadelphia and was known as the Presbytery of Philadelphia. The exact time and the place of this organization remains a bit doubtful, because the first pages of the old minute book have been lost. However, we find there were twelve ministers, twenty-two churches, and approximately two thousand communicant members in this first organization.

First Synod -- 1717

Twelve years later, by the year 1717 the First Synod was organized also in Philadelphia. Now the work was divided into four Presbyteries known as Philadelphia, New Castle, Snow Hill and Long Island. There were now nineteen ministers, forty churches, and approximately three thousand communicant members in the church.

First Division

By this time, Log College (later known as Princeton University) had been established, and had graduated several men who were ordained to the ministry. And objections were raised regarding the educational qualifications of these men, as compared to the men graduated from the Universities of Europe. Soon the Church was divided into what was known as the "Old Side," those supporting European schools, and the "New Side," or the group supporting the Princeton men. The Old Side formed what was known as the Synod of Philadelphia, and the New Side formed the Synod of New York, and they worked separately for about seventeen years, when a union was formed under the name of the Synod of "New York and Philadelphia." And this is the Synod which had the first jurisdiction over Western Pennsylvania.

Reunion And Growth

When the Old Side and New Side divisions were happily united into one church in 1758, there were ninety-eight ministers, two hundred churches, and about ten thousand communicant members in the church. Then followed the long and bitter struggle of the American Revolution. Every school boy knows that this was a struggle on behalf of Civil liberty, but it is not so well known that is was also a struggle for religious liberty. And it is not too much to say that the Presbyterians were the leaders in this movement for civil and religious liberty. As the historian Bancroft says, "The first voice publicly raised in America to dissolve all connections with Great Britain, came not from the Puritans of New England, nor from the Dutch of New York, nor from the planters of Virginia, but from the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians."

First General Assembly -- 1789

After the Revolutionary War was over, the pioneers began to push west of the Allegheny Mountains, and they were followed by the church. This expansion brought certain definite changes in the church organization. So while the Statesmen were busy writing a National constitution, we find the Presbyterians were busy organizing their church on a Nation-wide scale. And in 1789 they met in the first General Assembly. The year before, the work had been divided into four Synods and sixteen Presbyteries. Now there were one hundred and seventy-seven ministers, four hundred and thirty-one churches, and approximately twenty thousand communicant members in the church.

Chapter 3: Organization

Clarion Presbytery -- Its Erection -- Its Location -- Its Association

The Presbytery of Clarion was erected out of the Presbytery of Allegheny, by the Synod of Pittsburgh, October 22, 1841, with fourteen churches and four ministers. These original churches were New Rehoboth, Licking, Concord, Richland, Rockland, Brookville, Beechwoods, Pisgah (Corsica), Bethseda (Rimersburg), Perry, Callensburg, Mount Tabor, Clarion, and Greenwood. And the four ministers were John Core, Gara Bishop, John Glenn and David Polk.

First Meeting

As a result of this action of the Synod of Pittsburgh, the Presbytery of Clarion was organized, and held its first meeting in the Licking Church, January 11, 1842, at twelve o'clock noon. The opening sermon was delivered by the Rev. John Core, according to the plan adopted by Synod. At this meeting the Presbytery of Clarion was constituted, and the Rev. John Core elected as the first moderator. Rev. Gara Bishop was elected as the temporary clerk, and the Rev. David Polk as the Stated Clerk. At this meeting the Rev. Elisha D. Barrett, M. D., was received from the Presbytery of Blairsville. And James Montgomery, a licentiate transferred to the new Presbytery by the Synod, was examined and ordained. And the Rev. Robert Orr, of the Presbytery of Bedford was invited to sit as a corresponding member.

Robert Orr

It is most interesting to find this name of Robert W. Orr, who later played a prominent part in the work of the Presbytery, became the first Superintendent of Public Schools in Clarion County, and was one of the two sent out as missionaries by the newly organized Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church in 1837.

Location

The territory embraced in the new Presbytery, which was erected by Synod is defined as follows: "Lying East of the Allegheny River, beginning at the mouth of Mahoning Creek and up the North Branch of that creek, commonly called Mahoning, to the boundary line of Jefferson County; thence by the southern boundary of Jefferson County to the line of Clearfield County; thence North by the Eastern boundaries of Jefferson, Elk and McKean Counties to the State line; thence West by side line to the inflowing Allegheny River; thence down said river to the place of beginning."

This territory embraces all the counties of Clarion, Jefferson, Elk, McKean and Forrest (as then constituted) and parts of Warren and Venango Counties lying East of the Allegheny River, and part of Armstrong County lying North of Mahoning Creek. It was stipulated however, that the church of Perry should be left under the care of the Presbytery of Blairsville for the present, and where it remained till June 1854, when on the dissolution of the pastoral relation of the Rev. John Coruthers, it fell under the care of the Presbytery of Clarion.

Changes

The Presbyterial boundaries remained unchanged until the union of the two branches of Presbyterianism in 1869 (the Old School and the New School, disrupted by controversies respecting the plan of union with Congregationalists). After this Union our territory was somewhat reduced. The Synod of Erie, at its meeting in July 1870, in defining our limits, struck off McKean and portions of Warren and Armstrong counties which had formerly belonged to Clarion Presbytery. The Synod of 1871 further struck off that part of Forest County lying West of the Allegheny River, and attached it to Erie Presbytery. This left our territory embracing all of the counties of Clarion, Jefferson, Elk, and parts of Forest and Venango Counties lying East of the Allegheny River.

Presbyterial Connections

After the Revolutionary war, when the pioneers were pushing west of the Allegheny Mountains, and the Presbyterian leaders were busy organizing the church on a National scale, we find little mission stations dotted all over the country. Later most of these home mission stations became churches with settled pastors, and in turn they became a center from which missionary influence radiated to a larger area. Thus the church became a growing organization. In 1801 the territory West of the mountains was divided, and all the land West of the Allegheny River was placed in the Presbytery of Erie and the Synod of Virginia, while the territory East of the river and West of the Mountains was retained in the Presbytery of Redstone, but now placed in the Synod of Pittsburgh. In 1830 again the work was divided and the Northern portion of this territory was placed in the Presbytery of Allegheny. And in 1841 the territory was divided a third time and the Presbytery of Clarion was erected out of the Presbytery of Allegheny. So it appears that this territory now included in the Presbytery of Clarion has in whole or part been connected with four different Presbyteries.

Synodical Connections

And the Synodical connections of this territory have been as varied as the Prebyterial. In the first place the original Synod of "New York and Philadelphia" had jurisdiction over the entire field. Then in 1787 when the first General Assembly was organized this territory was placed in the Synod of Virginia. In 1801 the Synod of Pittsburgh was erected with the Allegheny River as the dividing line. In 1854 the Synod of Allegheny was erected to include all the territory North of the Ohio River. In 1870 the Synod of Erie was erected to include all the lands North of the Red Bank Creek, and finally in 1882 the Synod of Pennsylvania was established to cover the entire domain within the State by that name. So in whole or in part this territory, now included within Clarion Presbytery, has been connected with six different synods.

Later Divisions

When the Presbytery of Clarion was erected in 1841 all the territory in the Presbytery of Allegheny, lying East of the River was included in this territory. But in 1890 the Synod of Erie set off McKean County and portions of Armstrong and Warren Counties, and added that portion of Forest County lying West of the Allegheny River. And in the following year 1891, the Synod set off that same portion of Forest county to the Presbytery of Erie. In 1888 and again in 1892 the Synod of Pennsylvania set off small portions of Clearfield County which formerly had belonged to the Presbytery of Huntingdon. And in 1918 at the dissolution of the Presbytery of Wellsboro, portions of McKean County and of Potter County were added to Clarion Presbytery. Then in 1930 this territory from McKean and Potter counties was transferred to the Presbytery of Northumberland. So at the present time, the limits of Clarion Presbytery embrace all the counties of Clarion and Jefferson, with parts of Clearfield, Elk, Forest and Venango Counties. Or an area of about two thousand square miles.

Today the State of Pennsylvania, which is also the Synod of Pennsylvania is divided into nineteen groups or Presbyteries which are of irregular size. And the Presbytery of Clarion is located in the Northwestern section of the state.

Churches

Of the fourteen churches set over by the action of the Synod, thirteen of them continued to have a wholesome existence throughout the century. One, the Greenwood Church, was dissolved in April, 1886. During the century, forty-seven churches have been organized, two of these organizations had a short life and were reorganized after a period of reconstruction. These churches are in the order of their organization: Leatherwood, Mill Creek (Fisher), Tylersburg, New Bethlehem, Richardsville, Elkton (Dagus Mines), Tionesta, Academia (Nickleville), Mt. Pleasant (Knoxdale), Emlenton, Greenville (Limestone), Oak Grove (Squirrel Hill), Reynoldsville, Mt. Vernon, Punxsutawney (first time), Venango City, Mayville (Hazen), Perryville, Troy (Summerville), Oil City Second, St. Petersburg, West Millville (Hawthorne), Sligo, Shiloh (Miola), Worthville, East Brady, Ridgway (first time), Edenburg (Knox), Scotch Hill, Unity, Foxburg, Wilcox, Marienville, Brockway, Punxsutawney (second time), Cool Spring, Big Run, Adrian, Johnsonburg, Sugar Hill, Falls Creek, Rathmel, Medix Run, Endeavor, Ridgway (second time), Elenora Magyar, and Cloe.

Changes

Of this number thirteen have been dissolved as follows: Richardsville, Venango City, St. Petersburg, Scotch Hill, Unity, Foxburg, Rathmel, Medix Run, Elenora, Magyar, Mt. Vernon, Hazen, Perryville and Adrian.

Transfer

And fourteen churches have been received into Clarion Presbytery by transfer: DuBois from Huntingdon Presbytery, April 25, 1889; Penfield and Winterburn from Huntingdon Presbytery in April 1893; nine churches by the union with the Cumberland Church in 1907 -- Ayers, Anita, Seneca, Elenora, Olive, Punxsutawney Central, Valier, Pleasant Grove and Zion; and two by dissolution of the Presbytery of Wellsboro in 1918, Coudersport and Port Allegany.

All these churches remain at the present time except the Winterburn Church which was dissolved in 1894; the Elenora Church which was dissolved in 1931, and the Ayers Church which was dissolved in 1933. The two churches which were received by the dissolution of the Presbytery of Wellsboro, Coudersport and Port Allegany, were transferred to the Presbytery of Northumberland by the action of the General Assembly in 1930. The two churches in Punxsutawney were united in 1922. And the Oil City Second was transferred to the Presbytery of Erie in 1920. So out of the seventy different churches that have at one time been c